C01 Project Proposals, Fall 1996

The following list is a very short and crude outline of the various proposals submitted this quarter. You should think about how your interests overlap with your colleagues to decide on a group project that you would like to do. Remember that groups should be no more (and preferably no less) than three people. This requires you to negotiate with your fellow students to decide on what is a doable project. Also remember that none of the listed projects needs to be done as proposed. That is, you can negotiate a new proposal with two other students that meets the needs of all three of you. However, all of these proposals (both new and old) will need to be approved before you can start.

You should send me a note saying on what project you will be working before class on Wednesday, October 30

To contact your classmates, either use the Ph server or email me for their address.

I. Achievement Motivation
II. Anxiety
III. Extraversion
IV. Conscientiousness
V. Openness
VI. Aggression
VII Correlational studies
VIII Other

I. Achievement Motivation

A. Effects of External motivation on the need for achievement

Judith Brown
1. Theory
- a) Murray/McClelland models of n-ach
- b) Deci/Ryan concepts of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation
  - (1) do extrinsic motives reduce intrinsic?
2. Method
- a) TAT measures of n-ach
- b) list learning of English-Chinese paired associates
  - (1) why not just do straight PA?
- c) reward vs. no reward condition
3. Results
- a) two competing possible outcomes
  - (1) extrinsic reward decreases performance for high n-ach groups
  - (2) extrinsic reward does not help as much for high n-ach groups
- b) logically these are both interaction predictions, although one is a test of null effect (less change if any for high n-ach) and is thus sensitive to power constraints

B. The effect of destructive criticism on future orientation and achievement motivation as demonstrated by level of performance

Shawn Needham
1. Theory
- a) Atkinson model of achievement
- b) Raynor revision
  - (1) contingent paths as differing by major
  - (2) contingent paths as induced by instruction (ÒcanÕt continue unless you succeedÓ)
- c) assumption that high motivation leads to good performance
- d) no prior concern about threats or ÒtauntingÓ
  - (1) bosses or coaches who ÒmotivateÓ by taunts rather than reward
2. Method
- a) high low n-ach based upon TAT
- b) Wendt problems (same problems used by Raynor, Entin, etc.)
  - (1) 3 step math problems done in head
  - (2) give ÒstandardizedÓ probability of success (.5)
    - (a) point out that tests have been standardized for this group
  - (3) problems get harder Òdue to practiceÓ
  - (4) canÕt continue unless you get 50% correct
- c) ÒTauntingÓ vs. control
  - (1) ÒWell, look whoÕs here. I canÕt believe that you had the audacity to show up. ...Ó
- d) complete debriefing
  - (1) how do you handle the deception?
  - (2) Is this ethical to do?
  - (3) are there other ways to give criticism
3. Results
- a) interaction of contingency and taunting such that performance collapeses under contingent-taunting conditions for low ach.
- b) is performance the best measure versus preference?

C. Implications of inertial tendencies in achievement motivation and risk preference

Paul Merrild
1. Theory
- a) importance of motivation for why people succeed (McClelland)
- b) classic Atkinson theory
- c) dynamic theory
  - (1) Revelle & Michaels
  - (2) Kuhl and Blankenship
- d) replication study of K & B
2. Method
- a) TAT measures of n-ach
- b) perceptual reasoning task used by Kuhl and Blankenship
  - (1) connect the dots (in your head)
  - (2) problem with time versus accuracy on this task
- c) measures of time spent and difficulty level chosen on each task
3. Results
- a) predicts interaction of n-ach with time on task such that n-ach leads to harder task preference over time

D. Achievement motivation and gender differences: varying applied time constraints

Sonal Patel
1. Theory
- a) gender differences in achievement is this due to differences in achievement motivation
- b) Atkinson model
  - (1) initial findings did not show achievement differences in women in response to achievement challenge
  - (2) classic theory
  - (3) level of aspiration
- c) Hoffman & Gama suggest no gender difference
- d) Steinkamp and Maehr meta analysis suggests small but reliable effect of gender
2. Method
- a) male and female subjects
- b) task -- RubikÕs cube
  - (1) alternative task is specified -- getting a reward
- c) conditions
  - (1) take as long as you want before getting your reward
  - (2) take 20 minutes and then get a reward
3. Results
- a) predictions
  - (1) 20 minute time pressure should increase both groups time spent
  - (2) long as you want instructions should show small gender differences
- b) what about sex differences in spatial interest -- are there gender neutral tasks?

II. Anxiety

A. Testing the catastrophe model of anxiety and performance

Daniel Padilla

1. Theory
- a) motivation affects performance
- b) anxiety theories
  - (1) Hull-Spence
  - (2) Broadhurst, Hebb, Yerkes-Dodson
  - (3) multidimensional theories
    - (a) anxiety as sum of separate elements that can be manipulated independently
      - i) worry, expectations, somatic concerns
  - (4) catastrophe theories
    - (a) non-linear responses with hysterisis -ThomÕs theories
    - (b) the cusp catastrophe
    - (c) Hardy and Parfitt application
      - i) heart rate induction interacts with anxiety to affect performance
      - ii) a little helps, a lot hurts
    - (d) cognitive structuring of task
      - i) I have been failing but can I do it -- try harder
      - ii) I have been failing and I can not do it - quit
2. Method
- a) violin as an example of a complex and competing performance
  - (1) relax chin and left arm
  - (2) tense and move right arm
- b) measures of state anxiety
- c) caffeine induced arousal, beta blockers for moderate arousal (anxiety without physiology)
- d) orchestral audition as stress manipulation (for everyone)
  - (1) training session after audition as relaxed condition (for everyone)
  - (2) this confounds order with stress
3. Results
- a) interaction of drug induction and condition
- b) does not really test the hysterisis idea because of order effects

III. Extraversion

A. Arousal: musical effects on memory retrieval for introverts/extraverts

Ken Harris
1. Theory
- a) Eysenckian I/E theory
  - (1) GaleÕs modification of arousal seeking as function of situation
  - (2) Inverted U models
    - (a) Revelle, Amaral, and Turriff; Gilliland
- b) music and intellectual ability
  - (1) music as arousing
    - (a) happy, exciting music induces arousal, anxiety, compared with sad, calm music
- c) but what evidence that arousal facilitates or hinders immediate versus delayed list recall?
  - (1) confusing data exist here suggesting that immediate is hurt, delayed is helped by arousal at storage
2. Method
- a) I/E measured using EPI
- b) music: nomusic, classical music, modern music
- c) l75 list learning task
  - (1) free recall
  - (2) recognition recall (175 words with 115 fillers)
3. Results
- a) predicts music type x I/E interaction
  - (1) introverts do better with classical
  - (2) extraverts with contemporary
- b) not all classical is soothing or low arousing
  - (1) high tempo increases arousal
  - (2) slow tempo decreases arousal

B. Introversion/Extraversion

John Blume
1. Theory
- a) Eysenckian Theory
  - (1) arousal differences in I/E
- b) attacks
  - (1) Time of day effects
- c) modified theory
  - (1) OÕConner
    - (a) Introverts and Slow Positive Wave
    - (b) Extraverts and Slow Negative Wave
  - (2) Stenberg
    - (a) introversion and temporal blood flow
  - (3) extraversion more associated with external stimulation
  - (4) introversion with internal focus of stimulation
- d) arousal is a concomitant role rather than a causal role in I/E
  - (1) see Brebner and Cooper -- readiness to respond, readiness to detect
- e) introversion as strength of connections in an established network
2. Method
- a) I/E by EPI
- b) performance measure is a bit confused
  - (1) conditioning of response to flashing light
  - (2) what is being conditioned, what is CS, UCS, CR is unclear

C. The reationship between dextromethorpan, extraversion and modes of reinforcement in verbal operant conditioning

Shawn Lee
1. Theory
- a) Eysenckian theory of I/e
- b) effects of stimulants and depressants
- c) emphasis upon conditioning variation with stimulants/depressants
- d) Gupta -- verbal conditioning studies
  - (1) Introverts with depressants condition like Es
  - (2) Extraverts with stimulants like IÕs
2. Method
- a) arousal induction using dextromethorpan (Vicks 44D)
- b) I/E
- c) shock/no shock
- d) Verbal conditioning
  - (1) I, WE, HE, THEY
  - (2) Went, Got, Did, etc.
  - (3) change in frequency of use of first person following reward/punishment
3. Results
- a) under placebo -- EÕs are better to reward while IÕs to shock
- b) under drug Es are not as good at reward but better in shock

D. The deadly combination: introversion and family history

Deirdre McMahon
1. Theory
- a) alcohol consumption and abuse
- b) Vernon- the greater the expected positive effects, the greater the consumption
- c) self restraint
- d) Weinberger and Bartholomew -- repressive and constrictive
- e) Loper et al. characteristics of ÒprealcoholicsÓ
  - (1) MMPI scores of UM people who became hospitalized
  - (2) PD and hypomania- nonconforming, impulsive, gregarious
- f) Tarnai and Young -- risk factors favor extraverts as being at greater risk
  - (1) but they report Òdata supporting EysenckÓ -> more introversion
2. Method
- a) longitudinal study of at risk children
- b) no selection of parents , just long term observation
3. Results
- a) predicts Introversion as predictor of alcohol abuse in young adults
4. such a longitudinal study has been done - consider the Terman study --reanalyze those data for alcohol abuse and I/E

IV. Conscientiousness

A. The study of conscientiousness as a variable that effects motivation.

Heather Kapson
1. Theory
- a) motivation is important in behavior
- b) intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
- c) DweckÕs work on reactions to success and failure from cognitive point of view
  - (1) competence/mastery vs. performance goals
  - (2) situational versus predispositions as predictors of outcome
- d) measurement by thematic techniques
- e) conscientiousness hypothesized to be a moderating variable
  - (1) conscientiousness and performance setting?
2. Method
- a) high and low Conscientious to be assessed by MMPI (try NEO-PI or the FFI)
- b) alone vs. group conditions
- c) male vs. female subjects
- d) measures of time taken to complete a task
  - (1) good performanc equated with rapid performance
3. Results
- a) predicts 3 main effects:
  - (1) cons> less con
  - (2) groups > alone
  - (3) females > males

V. Openness

A. effects of long-term promotion of diversity on openness and cultural sensitivity

Phillip Jessel
- 1. Theory
  - a) study of pro-social behavior
    - (1) Marshall and Fellner
    - (2) Kosek
  - b) community service, volunteerism as important aspects of a democratic society (Winniford, et al., 1995)
    - (1) see also Snyder
  - c) is is possible to induce prosocial behavior?
- 2. Method
  - a) longitudinal study of freshman at NU
    - (1) random assignment to dorms with Òmulticutural advocatesÓ (MAs) versus normal RAs.
    - (2) measurement using the NEOP-PI-R openness scale
  - b) MAs assign at least 6 ÒprogramsÓ /year
- 3. Results
  - a) predicts increase in openness among MA students, not as much with normal RAs
  - b) consider the social effect -- accentuation of effects induced by MA due to common behaviors on part of student groups (see Newcomb)

VI. Aggression

A. If only I had the chance: aggressive behavior and arousal in observing a competitive video game

Alan Dorway
1. Theory
- a) violence permeates society
  - (1) what promotes violence/
  - (2) TV modeling?
  - (3) video game modeling?
    - (a) children who play aggressive video games are more violent
      - i) but is subject selection or modeling?
    - (b) passive observation of violent games produces an increase in violence
2. Method
- a) materials: Sega NHLPA Hockey 96
- b) IVs
  - (1) control vs. video game groups
  - (2) observe vs play
  - (3) Buss-Durkee trait measures of hostility, aggression (is actually a DV)
- c) DVs
  - (1) pulse rate measures
  - (2) measure of enjoyment, liking of other subject
  - (3) affect measures of hostility and agreeableness
3. Results
- a) predictions seem independent of personality characteristics:
  - (1) aggression mearsures are predicted to increase as a function of situation
- b) this is an interesting social psych experiment, but tells us nothing about personality traits or causes.
  - (1) can we predict that trait aggression interacts with cues to induce higher state aggression?

VII. Correlational studies

A. Personality traits versus tobacco smoking behavior and effects of smoking on arousal levels

Roger Chang
1. Theory
- a) Parrott (1994) smoking increases arousal, decreases stress
- b) Schacter et al. - deprivation leads to nicotine excretion, stress increases nicotine excretion, smoking increases nicotine, reduces withdrawal effects
  - (1) smoking as a way of reducing stress caused by withdrawal
- c) Fuller and Forrest (1977) smoking as relaxing, even if increases arousal
- d) Knott (1977): typology of smokers: high arousal smokers smoke when excited to calm down, low arousal smokers to get excited
- e) Nesbitt (1973) -- smoking increases physiological arousal, but they report being calmer
- f) Gilbert (1980) found that Introverts smoked when stressed
- g) Lester and Collins (1988) relaxing smokers have higher Extraversion scores
- h) McCrae and Costa -- neuroticism related to smoking
2. Method
- a) Quasi correlational
  - (1) 4 groups of subjects:
    - (a) current regular smokers
    - (b) current light smokers
    - (c) ex smokers (formerly heavy or light?)
    - (d) non-smokers
- b) EPQ to measure E and N and P, STAI to measure state anxiety
- c) stress manipulation/measurement
  - (1) EEG/EKG recording both as a stress manipulation and as a dependent measure
  - (2) 30 minutes of observation of ad lib behavior under stress induction
3. Results
- a) predicts higher PEN for regular smokers
- b) changes in arousal measures such that extraverts are more aroused (increase arousal the most) than other groups.

B. The perils of perfectionism: relationships with depression and suicidal preoccupation in students

Patricia Lao
1. Theory
- a) perfectionism and suicide -- a link through depression?
- b) issue of adolescent and youth suicide
  - (1) increasing trend
  - (2) associated with depression, alcohol, drug abuse, academic pressure
- c) scales to measure perfectionism
  - (1) Hewitt and Flett
    - (a) other oriented --demands that others meet unrealistic standards
    - (b) self oriented -- setting unreasonably high self standards
    - (c) socially prescribed -- belief that other have high standards about self
  - (2) Frost et al.
    - (a) excessive concern over mistakes
  - (3) BlattÕs analysis of Hewitt and Flett, and Frost et al.
    - (a) two factors
      - i) positive achievement strivings
      - ii) maladaptive evaluation concerns
    - (b) neurotic perfectionism -- need to avoid failure
- d) depression associated with perfectionistic concern about not making mistakes
- e) Adderholt-Elliot (1989) factors of underachievement
  - (1) procrastination
  - (2) fear of failure
  - (3) all or nothing mindset
  - (4) paralyzed perfectionism
  - (5) workaholism
- f) Pacht (1984) -- perfectionistic tendencies Òconstantly frustrated by their need to achieve and their failure to do soÓ
2. Method
- a) correlational design
- b) 100-200 students measured using
  - (1) Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
  - (2) Depression to be measured by Beck Depression I.
  - (3) suididal ideation from Alabama Adolescent Health Survey
  - (4) TAT measures of preoccupation with death and suicide
  - (5) age, academic class, gender also to be assessed
3. Results
- a) moderate to strong intercorrelations suggesting one common factor

C. College major and gender: how they influence oneÕs need to win

Lilly Gerhard
1. Theory
- a) in competion, one seeks success and desires failure in others
- b) Franken and Brown: the need to win
  - (1) the world is hostile
  - (2) one is unable to change
  - (3) model of success is limited to being in right place at right time
  - (4) (compare to performance versus competence motivation)
- c) competiveness of fields
  - (1) math and science as ÒcompetitiveÓ
  - (2) humanities as Ònon-competitiveÓ
  - (3) is this correct? teasing out natures secrets versus deconstructing someone elseÕs writings?
- d) sex differences in competition
- e) predictions
  - (1) premed>non-premed
  - (2) male>female
2. Method
- a) m/f
- b) premed/humanities
- c) need to win measures from Franken and Douglas
  - (1) satisfaction from improving performance
  - (2) desire to win
  - (3) motivation to put forth effort
  - (4) satisfaction from performing well
  - (5) preference for difficult tasks
3. Results
- a) straight correlations, no predicted interactions

D. The effects of birth order on achievement motivation

Kristin Nielsen
1. Theory
- a) Church et al. birth order and personality variables
- b) higher achievement motivation for first borns
- c) but see SullowayÕs recent meta analysis showing birth order effects from an evolutionary perspective
2. Method
- a) TAT measures of achievement need
- b) performance measure of persistence on 3 (ÒeasyÓ, ÒhardÓ and Òvery hardÓ) impossible tasks
- c) ad lib choice of time spent at all 3 tasks as well as ÒneutralÓ task
3. Results
- a) birth order effects on TAT
- b) birth order effects on persistence

VIII. Other

A. Sexual strategies versus personality similarities as components of mate selection

Deanna Hladek
1. Theory
- a) sexual strategies
  - (1) Darwin and evolutionary theory
  - (2) Evolutionary psychology
    - (a) Buss
      - i) short term versus long term strategies
    - (b) Trivers
      - i) investment theory of sex differences
      - ii) paternity uncertainty -- concerns with fidelity
      - iii) maternity certainty -- concerns with long term care
    - (c) long term versus short term goals and strategies
  - (3) Assortative mating on personality characteristics
    - (a) differences in short term versus long term relationships
2. Method
- a) longitudinal study of assortative mating
  - (1) survey of sexual strategies
  - (2) personality measures
3. Results
- a) although sexual strategies might predict immediate relationships, long term relationships wil reflect more assortative mating on other personality aspects

B. The effects of a depressive personality on the onset, metastasis and prognosis of cancer

Kimberly Bacula
1. Theory
- a) Cancer and the immune system
- b) personality effects and immune response to stress
  - (1) depression and cancer proneness
  - (2) proneness versus recovery
    - (a) the optimism dimension (Carver and Shire)
2. Method
- a) longitudinal study of women from health care clinics
  - (1) consider the WomenÕs Health Care Study
- b) MMPI measures of personality
  - (1) (why not broader, not so psychopathological instruments)
- c) measures of 17Ks and 17-OCHS
3. Results
- a) depression and cancer proneness
4. consider also the longitudinal study of Terman showing mortality effects